Nuclear hormone receptors are an evolutionarily conserved class of intracellular receptor proteins which have been termed “ligand dependent transcription factors”. Evans et al., SCIENCE, 240: 889 (1988). The nuclear hormone receptor gene superfamily encodes structurally-related receptor proteins for glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol, corticosterone, cortisone), androgens, mineralocorticoids (e.g. aldosterone), progestins, estrogen, and thyroid hormone. Also included within this superfamily of nuclear receptors are receptor proteins for vitamin D, retinoic acid, 9-cis retinoic acid, as well as those receptors for which no cognate ligands have been identified (“orphan receptors”) Ribeiro et al., Annual Rev. Med., 46:443-453 (1995). Steroid hormone receptors represent a subset of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. So named according to the cognate ligand which complexes with the receptor in its native state, the steroid hormone nuclear receptors include the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), the androgen receptor (AR), the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), the estrogen receptor (ER), and the progesterone receptor (PR). Tenbaum et al., Int. J. Biochem. Cell. Bio., 29(12):1325-1341(1997).
In contrast to membrane bound receptors, nuclear hormone receptors encounter their respective ligands following entry of the ligand into the cell. Once ligand binding occurs, the ligand-receptor complex modulates transcription of target genes within the cell nucleus. For example, most ligand-free nuclear receptors are bound in a complex with heat shock proteins (hsps) in the cytoplasm. Following entry of circulating hormone into the cell, hormone binding elicits a conformational change in the receptor, dissociating the receptor from the hsp. The ligand bound receptors form hetero-dimers that translocate to the nucleus where they bind to particular hormone response elements (HREs) in the promoter regions of target genes.
The HRE-receptor complex then, in turn, regulates transcription of proximally-located genes. (see Ribeiro et al., supra.). On the other hand, thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) and other non-steroid receptors such as vitamin D receptor (VDR) and retinoic acid receptors (RAR) are bound to their respective HRE in the absence of hsps and/or cognate ligand. Hormones released from the circulation enter the cell, binding in the nucleus to these receptors which, in turn, hetero-dimerize to other nuclear receptors such as 9-cis retinoic acid (RXR). As with the steroid hormone nuclear receptors, following ligand binding, the ligand-bound receptor complex again regulates transcription of neighboring genes.
Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids exert profound influences on a multitude of physiological functions by virtue of their diverse roles in growth, development, and maintenance of homeostasis. The actions are mediated by the MR and GR which share approximately 94% homology in their respective DNA binding regions, and approximately 57% homology in their respective ligand-binding domains. Kino et al., J. of Endocrinology, 169, 437-445 (2001). In visceral tissues, such as the kidney and the gut, MR regulates sodium retention, potassium excretion, and water balance in response to aldosterone. In addition, MR expression in the brain appears to play a role in the control of neuronal excitability, in the negative feedback regulation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, and in the cognitive aspects of behavioral performance. Castren et al., J. of Neuroendocrinology, 3, 461-466 (1993). GR, which is ubiquitously expressed in almost all tissues and organ systems, and the presence of glucocorticoids, appears crucial for the integrity of central nervous system function and the maintenance of cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune homeostasis. Kino et al., J. of Endocrinology, 169,437-445 (2001).
Elevations in aldosterone levels, or excess stimulation of mineralocorticoid receptors, are linked to several pathological disorders or pathologic disease states including, Conn's Syndrome, primary and secondary hyperaldosteronism, increased sodium retention, increased magnesium and potassium excretion (diuresis), increased water retention, hypertension (isolated systolic and combined systolic/diastolic), arrhythmias, myocardial fibrosis, myocardial infarction, Bartter's Syndrome, and disorders associated with excess catecholamine levels. Hadley, M. E., ENDOCRINOLOGY, 2nd Ed., pp. 366-381, (1988); and Brilla et al., Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, 25 (5), pp. 563-575 (1993). Additionally, elevated aldosterone levels have been increasingly implicated with congestive heart failure (CHF). In CHF, the failing heart triggers hormonal mechanisms in other organs in response to the attending reductions in blood flow and blood pressure seen with CHF. In particular, the kidney activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) causing an increase in aldosterone production by the adrenals which, in turn, promotes water and sodium retention, potassium loss, and further edema. Although historically it was believed that aldosterone participated in the etiology of CHF only as a result of its salt retaining effects, several recent studies have implicated elevated aldosterone levels with events in extra-adrenal tissues and organs, such as myocardial and vascular fibrosis, direct vascular damage, and baroreceptor dysfunction. Pitt et al., New Eng. J. Med., 341:709-717 (1999). These findings are particularly significant since angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, which were once thought to completely abolish aldosterone production, are now believed to only transiently suppress aldosterone production which has been shown to occur in extra-adrenal tissues including the heart and vasculature. Weber, New Eng. J. Med., 341:753-755 (1999); Fardella and Miller, Annu. Rev. Nutr., 16:443-470 (1996).
The involvement of aldosterone acting via MR in CHF was confirmed in the recently completed RALES (Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study) study. Pitt et al., New Eng. J. Med., 341:709-717 (1999). The RALES study demonstrated that the use of Aldactone™ (spironolactone), a well-known competitive MR antagonist, in combination with standard CHF therapy, reduced cardiac related mortality by 30% and frequency of hospitalization by 35% in patients suffering from advanced CHF. However, spironolactone therapy has also been implicated with attending side effects such as gastric bleeding, diarrhea, azotemia, hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis an type-4 renal tubule acidosis, nausea, gynecomastia, erectile dysfunction, hyperkalemia, and irregular menses. Thus, the mineralocorticoid receptor represents a viable target for CHF therapy either alone or in combination with conventional CHF therapies such as vasodilators (ACE inhibitors), inotropics (digoxin), diuretics, or beta blockers. Molecules, and preferably non-steroidals, which bind to the mineralocorticoid receptor and modulate receptor activity without the attending side effects of current therapies would be particularly desirable.
Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone), and the glucocorticoid receptor, have also been implicated in the etiology of a variety of pathological disorders or pathologic disease states. For example, cortisol hyposecretion is implicated in the pathogenesis of Addison's Disease and may result in muscle weakness, increased melanin pigmentation of the skin, weight loss, hypotension, and hypoglycemia. On the other hand, excessive or prolonged secretion of glucocorticoids has been correlated to Cushing's Syndrome and may also result in obesity, hypertension, glucose intolerance, hyperglycemia, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, polyuria, and polydipsia. Hadley, M. E., ENDOCRINOLOGY, 2nd Ed., pp. 366-381, (1988). Further, Coghlan et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,166,013, issued Dec. 26, 2000, discloses that GR selective agents could modulate GR activity and, thus, be useful in the treatment of inflammation, tissue rejection, auto-immunity, malignancies such as leukemias and lymphomas, Cushing's syndrome, acute adrenal insufficiency, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, rheumatic fever, polyarteritis nodosa, granulomatous polyarteritis, inhibition of myeloid cell lines, immune proliferation/apoptosis, HPA axis suppression and regulation, hypercortisolemia, modulation of the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance, chronic kidney disease, stroke and spinal cord injury, hypercalcemia, hypergylcemia, acute adrenal insufficiency, chronic primary adrenal insufficiency, secondary adrenal insufficiency, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, cerebral edema, thrombocytopenia, and Little's syndrome. Coghlan et al. also discloses that GR modulators are especially useful in disease states involving systemic inflammation such as inflammatory bowel disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, polyartitis nodosa, Wegener's granulomatosis, giant cell arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, hay fever, allergic rhinitis, urticaria, angioneurotic edema, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, tendonitis, bursitis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, autoimmune chronic active hepatitis, organ transplantation, hepatitis, and cirrhosis; and that GR modulating compounds have been used as immunostimulants, repressors, and as wound healing and tissue repair agents.
In addition, Coghlan et al. discloses that GR modulators have also found use in a variety of topical diseases such as inflammatory scalp alopecia, panniculitis, psoriasis, discoid lupus erythematosus, inflamed cysts, atopic dermatitis, pyoderma gangrenosum, pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, systemic lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, eosinophilic fasciitis, relapsing polychondritis, inflammatory vasculitis, sarcoidosis, Sweet's disease, type 1 reactive leprosy, capillary hemangiomas, contact dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, lichen planus, exfoliative dermatitis, erythema nodosum, acne, hirsutism, toxic epidermal necrolysis, erythema multiform, and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.
Thus, it is clear that a ligand which has affinity for steroid hormone nuclear receptors, and particularly for MR and/or GR, could be used to modulate (i.e. antagonize, agonize, partially antagonize, partially agonize) receptor activity and therby influence a multitude of physiological functions related to alterations in steroid hormone levels and/or steroid hormone receptor activity. In this regard, such ligands could be useful to treat a wide range of pathological disorders susceptible to steroid hormone nuclear receptor modulation.
Several art references disclose oxindole derivative molecules useful as, inter alia, photographic coupling agents, intermediates in polyimide synthesis, and chemical catalysts. Further, oxindole-derivative compounds have also been disclosed as having pharmcologic utility as, inter alia, anti-inflammatory agents, laxative agents, and analgesic agents. Surprisingly, however, and in accordance with the present invention, applicants have discovered a series of oxindole-derivative compounds with affinity for steroid hormone nuclear receptors, and particularly MR and GR. Such compounds could modulate receptor activity and, thus, have utility in treating pathological disorders related to alterations in steroid hormone level and/or to alterations in steroid hormone nuclear receptor activity. As a further embodiment, the present invention also provides a novel series of novel non-steroidal oxindole-derivative compounds that exhibit steroid hormone nuclear receptor affinity and modulating activity. Such methods and compounds could address a long felt and continuing need for safe and effective pharmaceutical interventions without the attending side effects of steroidal-type agents. The treatment of steroid hormone related pathological disorders is hereby furthered.
The following references describe examples of the state of the art as it relates to the present invention.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,904,575 and Japanese Patent No. JP01105248 disclose indolinone compounds as photographic coupling agents.
Russian Patent No. SU757530 discloses 3,3-diaryl-2-indolinone-1-acetic acid derivatives as anti-inflammatory agents.
Russian Patent No. SU75782 discloses 3,3-di-para-tolyl-5-bromo-1-aminomethyl-2-indolinone derivatives as anti-inflammatory agents.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,705,869 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,016,173 disclose the synthesis of oxindole diamines useful for preparing polimide polymers.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,053,483 discloses 3,3-bis-4-hydroxyphenyl-2-indolinone compounds as laxative agents.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,558,653 discloses 1-aminoalkyl-3,3-diphenyl-indolinones compounds as anti-inflammatory agents.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,914,431 discloses cocatalysts for the synthesis of bisphenols.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,329,416 discloses combination treatment regimes using 3,3 substitutted indoline derivative PR antagonists.
Published International PCT Application WO 96/19458 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,696,130; 5,994,544; 6,017,924, and 6,121,450 disclose quinoline derivative analogs as steroid hormone receptor modulators.
Published International PCT Application WO 00/06137 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,166,013 disclose triphenylmethane compounds as glucocorticoid receptor modulators.
U.S. Pat. No. 6,147,066 discloses anti-mineralocorticoid receptor compounds for use in treating drug withdrawal syndrome.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,008,210 and 6,093,708 disclose spirolactone compounds, such as spironolactone and epoxymexrenone, with affinity for the mineralocorticoid receptor for use in the treatment of myocardial fibrosis.